Boss/Worker¶

The boss/worker model usually has one boss thread and one or more worker threads. The boss thread gathers or generates tasks that need to be done, then parcels those tasks out to the appropriate worker thread.

This model is common in GUI and server programs, where a main thread waits for some event and then passes that event to the appropriate worker threads for processing. Once the event has been passed on, the boss thread goes back to waiting for another event.

The boss thread does relatively little work. While tasks aren't necessarily performed faster than with any other method, it tends to have the best user-response times.

Work Crew¶

In the work crew model, several threads are created that do essentially the same thing to different pieces of data. It closely mirrors classical parallel processing and vector processors, where a large array of processors do the exact same thing to many pieces of data.

This model is particularly useful if the system running the program will distribute multiple threads across different processors. It can also be useful in ray tracing or rendering engines, where the individual threads can pass on interim results to give the user visual feedback.

Pipeline¶

The pipeline model divides up a task into a series of steps, and passes the results of one step on to the thread processing the next. Each thread does one thing to each piece of data and passes the results to the next thread in line.

This model makes the most sense if you have multiple processors so two or more threads will be executing in parallel, though it can often make sense in other contexts as well. It tends to keep the individual tasks small and simple, as well as allowing some parts of the pipeline to block (on I/O or system calls, for example) while other parts keep going. If you're running different parts of the pipeline on different processors you may also take advantage of the caches on each processor.

This model is also handy for a form of recursive programming where, rather than having a subroutine call itself, it instead creates another thread. Prime and Fibonacci generators both map well to this form of the pipeline model. (A version of a prime number generator is presented later on.)

Basic Thread Support¶

Thread support is a Perl compile-time option. It's something that's turned on or off when Perl is built at your site, rather than when your programs are compiled. If your Perl wasn't compiled with thread support enabled, then any attempt to use threads will fail.

Your programs can use the Config module to check whether threads are enabled. If your program can't run without them, you can say something like:

    use Config;
    $Config{useithreads} or die('Recompile Perl with threads to run this program.');

A possibly-threaded program using a possibly-threaded module might have code like this:

    use Config;
    use MyMod;
    BEGIN {
        if ($Config{useithreads}) {
            # We have threads
            require MyMod_threaded;
            import MyMod_threaded;
        } else {
            require MyMod_unthreaded;
            import MyMod_unthreaded;
        }
    }

Since code that runs both with and without threads is usually pretty messy, it's best to isolate the thread-specific code in its own module. In our example above, that's what "MyMod_threaded" is, and it's only imported if we're running on a threaded Perl.

A Note about the Examples¶

In a real situation, care should be taken that all threads are finished executing before the program exits. That care has not been taken in these examples in the interest of simplicity. Running these examples as is will produce error messages, usually caused by the fact that there are still threads running when the program exits. You should not be alarmed by this.

Creating Threads¶

The threads module provides the tools you need to create new threads. Like any other module, you need to tell Perl that you want to use it; "use threads;" imports all the pieces you need to create basic threads.

The simplest, most straightforward way to create a thread is with "create()":

    use threads;
    my $thr = threads->create(\&sub1);
    sub sub1 {
        print("In the thread\n");
    }

The "create()" method takes a reference to a subroutine and creates a new thread that starts executing in the referenced subroutine. Control then passes both to the subroutine and the caller.

If you need to, your program can pass parameters to the subroutine as part of the thread startup. Just include the list of parameters as part of the "threads->create()" call, like this:

    use threads;
    my $Param3 = 'foo';
    my $thr1 = threads->create(\&sub1, 'Param 1', 'Param 2', $Param3);
    my @ParamList = (42, 'Hello', 3.14);
    my $thr2 = threads->create(\&sub1, @ParamList);
    my $thr3 = threads->create(\&sub1, qw(Param1 Param2 Param3));
    sub sub1 {
        my @InboundParameters = @_;
        print("In the thread\n");
        print('Got parameters >', join('<>', @InboundParameters), "<\n");
    }

The last example illustrates another feature of threads. You can spawn off several threads using the same subroutine. Each thread executes the same subroutine, but in a separate thread with a separate environment and potentially separate arguments.

"new()" is a synonym for "create()".

Waiting For A Thread To Exit¶

Since threads are also subroutines, they can return values. To wait for a thread to exit and extract any values it might return, you can use the "join()" method:

    use threads;
    my ($thr) = threads->create(\&sub1);
    my @ReturnData = $thr->join();
    print('Thread returned ', join(', ', @ReturnData), "\n");
    sub sub1 { return ('Fifty-six', 'foo', 2); }

In the example above, the "join()" method returns as soon as the thread ends. In addition to waiting for a thread to finish and gathering up any values that the thread might have returned, "join()" also performs any OS cleanup necessary for the thread. That cleanup might be important, especially for long-running programs that spawn lots of threads. If you don't want the return values and don't want to wait for the thread to finish, you should call the "detach()" method instead, as described next.

NOTE: In the example above, the thread returns a list, thus necessitating that the thread creation call be made in list context (i.e., "my ($thr)"). See "$thr->join()" in threads and "THREAD CONTEXT" in threads for more details on thread context and return values.

Ignoring A Thread¶

"join()" does three things: it waits for a thread to exit, cleans up after it, and returns any data the thread may have produced. But what if you're not interested in the thread's return values, and you don't really care when the thread finishes? All you want is for the thread to get cleaned up after when it's done.

In this case, you use the "detach()" method. Once a thread is detached, it'll run until it's finished; then Perl will clean up after it automatically.

    use threads;
    my $thr = threads->create(\&sub1);   # Spawn the thread
    $thr->detach();   # Now we officially don't care any more
    sleep(15);        # Let thread run for awhile
    sub sub1 {
        $a = 0;
        while (1) {
            $a++;
            print("\$a is $a\n");
            sleep(1);
        }
    }

Once a thread is detached, it may not be joined, and any return data that it might have produced (if it was done and waiting for a join) is lost.

"detach()" can also be called as a class method to allow a thread to detach itself:

    use threads;
    my $thr = threads->create(\&sub1);
    sub sub1 {
        threads->detach();
        # Do more work
    }

Process and Thread Termination¶

With threads one must be careful to make sure they all have a chance to run to completion, assuming that is what you want.

An action that terminates a process will terminate all running threads. die() and exit() have this property, and perl does an exit when the main thread exits, perhaps implicitly by falling off the end of your code, even if that's not what you want.

As an example of this case, this code prints the message "Perl exited with active threads: 2 running and unjoined":

    use threads;
    my $thr1 = threads->new(\&thrsub, "test1");
    my $thr2 = threads->new(\&thrsub, "test2");
    sub thrsub {
       my ($message) = @_;
       sleep 1;
       print "thread $message\n";
    }

But when the following lines are added at the end:

    $thr1->join();
    $thr2->join();

it prints two lines of output, a perhaps more useful outcome.

Shared And Unshared Data¶

The biggest difference between Perl ithreads and the old 5.005 style threading, or for that matter, to most other threading systems out there, is that by default, no data is shared. When a new Perl thread is created, all the data associated with the current thread is copied to the new thread, and is subsequently private to that new thread! This is similar in feel to what happens when a Unix process forks, except that in this case, the data is just copied to a different part of memory within the same process rather than a real fork taking place.

To make use of threading, however, one usually wants the threads to share at least some data between themselves. This is done with the threads::shared module and the ":shared" attribute:

    use threads;
    use threads::shared;
    my $foo :shared = 1;
    my $bar = 1;
    threads->create(sub { $foo++; $bar++; })->join();
    print("$foo\n");  # Prints 2 since $foo is shared
    print("$bar\n");  # Prints 1 since $bar is not shared

In the case of a shared array, all the array's elements are shared, and for a shared hash, all the keys and values are shared. This places restrictions on what may be assigned to shared array and hash elements: only simple values or references to shared variables are allowed - this is so that a private variable can't accidentally become shared. A bad assignment will cause the thread to die. For example:

    use threads;
    use threads::shared;
    my $var          = 1;
    my $svar :shared = 2;
    my %hash :shared;
    ... create some threads ...
    $hash{a} = 1;       # All threads see exists($hash{a}) and $hash{a} == 1
    $hash{a} = $var;    # okay - copy-by-value: same effect as previous
    $hash{a} = $svar;   # okay - copy-by-value: same effect as previous
    $hash{a} = \$svar;  # okay - a reference to a shared variable
    $hash{a} = \$var;   # This will die
    delete($hash{a});   # okay - all threads will see !exists($hash{a})

Note that a shared variable guarantees that if two or more threads try to modify it at the same time, the internal state of the variable will not become corrupted. However, there are no guarantees beyond this, as explained in the next section.

Thread Pitfalls: Races¶

While threads bring a new set of useful tools, they also bring a number of pitfalls. One pitfall is the race condition:

    use threads;
    use threads::shared;
    my $a :shared = 1;
    my $thr1 = threads->create(\&sub1);
    my $thr2 = threads->create(\&sub2);
    $thr1->join();
    $thr2->join();
    print("$a\n");
    sub sub1 { my $foo = $a; $a = $foo + 1; }
    sub sub2 { my $bar = $a; $a = $bar + 1; }

What do you think $a will be? The answer, unfortunately, is it depends. Both "sub1()" and "sub2()" access the global variable $a, once to read and once to write. Depending on factors ranging from your thread implementation's scheduling algorithm to the phase of the moon, $a can be 2 or 3.

Race conditions are caused by unsynchronized access to shared data. Without explicit synchronization, there's no way to be sure that nothing has happened to the shared data between the time you access it and the time you update it. Even this simple code fragment has the possibility of error:

    use threads;
    my $a :shared = 2;
    my $b :shared;
    my $c :shared;
    my $thr1 = threads->create(sub { $b = $a; $a = $b + 1; });
    my $thr2 = threads->create(sub { $c = $a; $a = $c + 1; });
    $thr1->join();
    $thr2->join();

Two threads both access $a. Each thread can potentially be interrupted at any point, or be executed in any order. At the end, $a could be 3 or 4, and both $b and $c could be 2 or 3.

Even "$a += 5" or "$a++" are not guaranteed to be atomic.

Whenever your program accesses data or resources that can be accessed by other threads, you must take steps to coordinate access or risk data inconsistency and race conditions. Note that Perl will protect its internals from your race conditions, but it won't protect you from you.

Controlling access: lock()¶

The "lock()" function takes a shared variable and puts a lock on it. No other thread may lock the variable until the variable is unlocked by the thread holding the lock. Unlocking happens automatically when the locking thread exits the block that contains the call to the "lock()" function. Using "lock()" is straightforward: This example has several threads doing some calculations in parallel, and occasionally updating a running total:

    use threads;
    use threads::shared;
    my $total :shared = 0;
    sub calc {
        while (1) {
            my $result;
            # (... do some calculations and set $result ...)
            {
                lock($total);  # Block until we obtain the lock
                $total += $result;
            } # Lock implicitly released at end of scope
            last if $result == 0;
        }
    }
    my $thr1 = threads->create(\&calc);
    my $thr2 = threads->create(\&calc);
    my $thr3 = threads->create(\&calc);
    $thr1->join();
    $thr2->join();
    $thr3->join();
    print("total=$total\n");

"lock()" blocks the thread until the variable being locked is available. When "lock()" returns, your thread can be sure that no other thread can lock that variable until the block containing the lock exits.

It's important to note that locks don't prevent access to the variable in question, only lock attempts. This is in keeping with Perl's longstanding tradition of courteous programming, and the advisory file locking that "flock()" gives you.

You may lock arrays and hashes as well as scalars. Locking an array, though, will not block subsequent locks on array elements, just lock attempts on the array itself.

Locks are recursive, which means it's okay for a thread to lock a variable more than once. The lock will last until the outermost "lock()" on the variable goes out of scope. For example:

    my $x :shared;
    doit();
    sub doit {
        {
            {
                lock($x); # Wait for lock
                lock($x); # NOOP - we already have the lock
                {
                    lock($x); # NOOP
                    {
                        lock($x); # NOOP
                        lockit_some_more();
                    }
                }
            } # *** Implicit unlock here ***
        }
    }
    sub lockit_some_more {
        lock($x); # NOOP
    } # Nothing happens here

Note that there is no "unlock()" function - the only way to unlock a variable is to allow it to go out of scope.

A lock can either be used to guard the data contained within the variable being locked, or it can be used to guard something else, like a section of code. In this latter case, the variable in question does not hold any useful data, and exists only for the purpose of being locked. In this respect, the variable behaves like the mutexes and basic semaphores of traditional thread libraries.

A Thread Pitfall: Deadlocks¶

Locks are a handy tool to synchronize access to data, and using them properly is the key to safe shared data. Unfortunately, locks aren't without their dangers, especially when multiple locks are involved. Consider the following code:

    use threads;
    my $a :shared = 4;
    my $b :shared = 'foo';
    my $thr1 = threads->create(sub {
        lock($a);
        sleep(20);
        lock($b);
    });
    my $thr2 = threads->create(sub {
        lock($b);
        sleep(20);
        lock($a);
    });

This program will probably hang until you kill it. The only way it won't hang is if one of the two threads acquires both locks first. A guaranteed-to-hang version is more complicated, but the principle is the same.

The first thread will grab a lock on $a, then, after a pause during which the second thread has probably had time to do some work, try to grab a lock on $b. Meanwhile, the second thread grabs a lock on $b, then later tries to grab a lock on $a. The second lock attempt for both threads will block, each waiting for the other to release its lock.

This condition is called a deadlock, and it occurs whenever two or more threads are trying to get locks on resources that the others own. Each thread will block, waiting for the other to release a lock on a resource. That never happens, though, since the thread with the resource is itself waiting for a lock to be released.

There are a number of ways to handle this sort of problem. The best way is to always have all threads acquire locks in the exact same order. If, for example, you lock variables $a, $b, and $c, always lock $a before $b, and $b before $c. It's also best to hold on to locks for as short a period of time to minimize the risks of deadlock.

The other synchronization primitives described below can suffer from similar problems.

Queues: Passing Data Around¶

A queue is a special thread-safe object that lets you put data in one end and take it out the other without having to worry about synchronization issues. They're pretty straightforward, and look like this:

    use threads;
    use Thread::Queue;
    my $DataQueue = Thread::Queue->new();
    my $thr = threads->create(sub {
        while (my $DataElement = $DataQueue->dequeue()) {
            print("Popped $DataElement off the queue\n");
        }
    });
    $DataQueue->enqueue(12);
    $DataQueue->enqueue("A", "B", "C");
    sleep(10);
    $DataQueue->enqueue(undef);
    $thr->join();

You create the queue with "Thread::Queue->new()". Then you can add lists of scalars onto the end with "enqueue()", and pop scalars off the front of it with "dequeue()". A queue has no fixed size, and can grow as needed to hold everything pushed on to it.

If a queue is empty, "dequeue()" blocks until another thread enqueues something. This makes queues ideal for event loops and other communications between threads.

Semaphores: Synchronizing Data Access¶

Semaphores are a kind of generic locking mechanism. In their most basic form, they behave very much like lockable scalars, except that they can't hold data, and that they must be explicitly unlocked. In their advanced form, they act like a kind of counter, and can allow multiple threads to have the lock at any one time.

Basic semaphores¶

Semaphores have two methods, "down()" and "up()": "down()" decrements the resource count, while "up()" increments it. Calls to "down()" will block if the semaphore's current count would decrement below zero. This program gives a quick demonstration:

    use threads;
    use Thread::Semaphore;
    my $semaphore = Thread::Semaphore->new();
    my $GlobalVariable :shared = 0;
    $thr1 = threads->create(\&sample_sub, 1);
    $thr2 = threads->create(\&sample_sub, 2);
    $thr3 = threads->create(\&sample_sub, 3);
    sub sample_sub {
        my $SubNumber = shift(@_);
        my $TryCount = 10;
        my $LocalCopy;
        sleep(1);
        while ($TryCount--) {
            $semaphore->down();
            $LocalCopy = $GlobalVariable;
            print("$TryCount tries left for sub $SubNumber (\$GlobalVariable is $GlobalVariable)\n");
            sleep(2);
            $LocalCopy++;
            $GlobalVariable = $LocalCopy;
            $semaphore->up();
        }
    }
    $thr1->join();
    $thr2->join();
    $thr3->join();

The three invocations of the subroutine all operate in sync. The semaphore, though, makes sure that only one thread is accessing the global variable at once.

Advanced Semaphores¶

By default, semaphores behave like locks, letting only one thread "down()" them at a time. However, there are other uses for semaphores.

Each semaphore has a counter attached to it. By default, semaphores are created with the counter set to one, "down()" decrements the counter by one, and "up()" increments by one. However, we can override any or all of these defaults simply by passing in different values:

    use threads;
    use Thread::Semaphore;
    my $semaphore = Thread::Semaphore->new(5);
                    # Creates a semaphore with the counter set to five
    my $thr1 = threads->create(\&sub1);
    my $thr2 = threads->create(\&sub1);
    sub sub1 {
        $semaphore->down(5); # Decrements the counter by five
        # Do stuff here
        $semaphore->up(5); # Increment the counter by five
    }
    $thr1->detach();
    $thr2->detach();

If "down()" attempts to decrement the counter below zero, it blocks until the counter is large enough. Note that while a semaphore can be created with a starting count of zero, any "up()" or "down()" always changes the counter by at least one, and so "$semaphore->down(0)" is the same as "$semaphore->down(1)".

The question, of course, is why would you do something like this? Why create a semaphore with a starting count that's not one, or why decrement or increment it by more than one? The answer is resource availability. Many resources that you want to manage access for can be safely used by more than one thread at once.

For example, let's take a GUI driven program. It has a semaphore that it uses to synchronize access to the display, so only one thread is ever drawing at once. Handy, but of course you don't want any thread to start drawing until things are properly set up. In this case, you can create a semaphore with a counter set to zero, and up it when things are ready for drawing.

Semaphores with counters greater than one are also useful for establishing quotas. Say, for example, that you have a number of threads that can do I/O at once. You don't want all the threads reading or writing at once though, since that can potentially swamp your I/O channels, or deplete your process's quota of filehandles. You can use a semaphore initialized to the number of concurrent I/O requests (or open files) that you want at any one time, and have your threads quietly block and unblock themselves.

Larger increments or decrements are handy in those cases where a thread needs to check out or return a number of resources at once.

Waiting for a Condition¶

The functions "cond_wait()" and "cond_signal()" can be used in conjunction with locks to notify co-operating threads that a resource has become available. They are very similar in use to the functions found in "pthreads". However for most purposes, queues are simpler to use and more intuitive. See threads::shared for more details.

Giving up control¶

There are times when you may find it useful to have a thread explicitly give up the CPU to another thread. You may be doing something processor-intensive and want to make sure that the user-interface thread gets called frequently. Regardless, there are times that you might want a thread to give up the processor.

Perl's threading package provides the "yield()" function that does this. "yield()" is pretty straightforward, and works like this:

    use threads;
    sub loop {
        my $thread = shift;
        my $foo = 50;
        while($foo--) { print("In thread $thread\n"); }
        threads->yield();
        $foo = 50;
        while($foo--) { print("In thread $thread\n"); }
    }
    my $thr1 = threads->create(\&loop, 'first');
    my $thr2 = threads->create(\&loop, 'second');
    my $thr3 = threads->create(\&loop, 'third');

It is important to remember that "yield()" is only a hint to give up the CPU, it depends on your hardware, OS and threading libraries what actually happens. On many operating systems, yield() is a no-op. Therefore it is important to note that one should not build the scheduling of the threads around "yield()" calls. It might work on your platform but it won't work on another platform.

What Thread Am I In?¶

The "threads->self()" class method provides your program with a way to get an object representing the thread it's currently in. You can use this object in the same way as the ones returned from thread creation.

Thread IDs¶

"tid()" is a thread object method that returns the thread ID of the thread the object represents. Thread IDs are integers, with the main thread in a program being 0. Currently Perl assigns a unique TID to every thread ever created in your program, assigning the first thread to be created a TID of 1, and increasing the TID by 1 for each new thread that's created. When used as a class method, "threads->tid()" can be used by a thread to get its own TID.

Are These Threads The Same?¶

The "equal()" method takes two thread objects and returns true if the objects represent the same thread, and false if they don't.

Thread objects also have an overloaded "==" comparison so that you can do comparison on them as you would with normal objects.

What Threads Are Running?¶

"threads->list()" returns a list of thread objects, one for each thread that's currently running and not detached. Handy for a number of things, including cleaning up at the end of your program (from the main Perl thread, of course):

    # Loop through all the threads
    foreach my $thr (threads->list()) {
        $thr->join();
    }

If some threads have not finished running when the main Perl thread ends, Perl will warn you about it and die, since it is impossible for Perl to clean up itself while other threads are running.

NOTE: The main Perl thread (thread 0) is in a detached state, and so does not appear in the list returned by "threads->list()".

Introductory Texts¶

Birrell, Andrew D. An Introduction to Programming with Threads. Digital Equipment Corporation, 1989, DEC-SRC Research Report #35 online as ftp://ftp.dec.com/pub/DEC/SRC/research-reports/SRC-035.pdf (highly recommended)

Robbins, Kay. A., and Steven Robbins. Practical Unix Programming: A Guide to Concurrency, Communication, and Multithreading. Prentice-Hall, 1996.

Lewis, Bill, and Daniel J. Berg. Multithreaded Programming with Pthreads. Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-443698-9 (a well-written introduction to threads).

Nelson, Greg (editor). Systems Programming with Modula-3. Prentice Hall, 1991, ISBN 0-13-590464-1.

Nichols, Bradford, Dick Buttlar, and Jacqueline Proulx Farrell. Pthreads Programming. O'Reilly & Associates, 1996, ISBN 156592-115-1 (covers POSIX threads).

OS-Related References¶

Boykin, Joseph, David Kirschen, Alan Langerman, and Susan LoVerso. Programming under Mach. Addison-Wesley, 1994, ISBN 0-201-52739-1.

Tanenbaum, Andrew S. Distributed Operating Systems. Prentice Hall, 1995, ISBN 0-13-219908-4 (great textbook).

Silberschatz, Abraham, and Peter B. Galvin. Operating System Concepts, 4th ed. Addison-Wesley, 1995, ISBN 0-201-59292-4

Other References¶

Arnold, Ken and James Gosling. The Java Programming Language, 2nd ed. Addison-Wesley, 1998, ISBN 0-201-31006-6.

comp.programming.threads FAQ, http://www.serpentine.com/~bos/threads-faq/ <http://www.serpentine.com/~bos/threads-faq/>

Le Sergent, T. and B. Berthomieu. "Incremental MultiThreaded Garbage Collection on Virtually Shared Memory Architectures" in Memory Management: Proc. of the International Workshop IWMM 92, St. Malo, France, September 1992, Yves Bekkers and Jacques Cohen, eds. Springer, 1992, ISBN 3540-55940-X (real-life thread applications).

Artur Bergman, "Where Wizards Fear To Tread", June 11, 2002, <http://www.perl.com/pub/a/2002/06/11/threads.html>